Cemetery Symbolism Clasped Hands and Pointing Fingers

Seen as an important symbol of life, hands and fingers carved into gravestones represent the deceaseds relationships with other human beings and with God. Cemetery hands tend to be found most commonly on Victorian tombstones of the 1800s to mid-1900s, and are typically portrayed in one of four ways: blessing, clasping, pointing or praying. Finger Pointing Up or Down A hand with the index finger pointing up symbolizes the hope of heaven, while a hand with the index finger pointing down represents God reaching down for the soul. The finger pointing down does not indicate damnation; instead, it most commonly represents an untimely, sudden, or unexpected death.   A hand with a finger pointing at a book typically represents the Bible.   Hands Holding Something Hands holding a chain with a broken link symbolizes the death of a family member or, sometimes, the bonds of marriage, broken by death. The hand of God plucking a link of the chain represents God bringing a soul unto himself. Hands holding an open book (usually a representation of the Bible) symbolize the embodiment of faith. Hands holding a heart  are symbolic of charity and are most typically seen on headstones of members of the Independent Order of Odd Fellows (I.O.O.F.). Handshake or Clasped Hands The  handshake  or representation of clasped hands dates back to the Victorian era and represents a farewell to earthly existence and Gods welcome into heaven. It may also indicate a relationship between the deceased and the loved ones they left behind. If the sleeves of the two hands are masculine and feminine, the handshake, or clasped hands, may symbolize holy matrimony, or the eternal unity of a husband or wife. Sometimes the hand on top or the arm positioned slightly higher than the other indicates the person who passed away first, and is now guiding their loved one into the next life. Alternatively, it may indicate God or someone else reaching down to guide them up to Heaven. Clasped hands can also sometimes represent lodge fellowship and are often seen on  Masonic and I.O.O.F. headstones. Hand Holding an Ax A hand holding an ax means sudden death or a life cut short. Cloud With a Hand Emerging This represents God reaching down to the deceased. Fingers Parted in a V or Hands with Touching Thumbs Two hands, with middle and ring fingers parted to form a V (often with the thumbs touching), are the symbol of a Jewish priestly blessing, from Kohen or Cohen, or the plural form Kohanim or Cohanim  (Hebrew for priest). Kohanim are direct male descendants of Aaron, the first Kohen, and brother of Moses. Some Jewish surnames often associated with this symbol include Cahn/Kahn, Cohn/Kohn and Cohen/Kohen, although this symbol may also be found on gravestones of people with other surnames. Leonard Nimoy modeled the Live Long and Prosper hand gesture of his Star Trek character, Spock after this symbol.

Essay on Returning to College as an Adult - 650 Words

Returning to College as an Adult Coming to college as an adult, we have many expectations and preconceptions of what college will or will not be. The expectations we have can influence our college life for the better or the worse. My experience since starting college has been an interesting one. People have misconceptions about college because they do not know what to expect. After doing some research, I have concluded that there are three major factors that are often misunderstood about college life. The first is the financial aspect of college. Second, is the relationship between the professors and students. Third is time management. These three factors play an important role in why people are afraid to go down the path to college.†¦show more content†¦There are many options available from low-tuition state universities, financial aid, employer tuition reimbursement. In some cases, you can be eligible for various types of grants. Being a single mother or just shopping at a certain supermarket can make you eligible. There is a misconception about the professors (sometimes called instructors). Questions arise such as; will they make time for me when I need the extra help? How large will the class be? Will they understand that this may not be as easy for me as it is for others? These questions enter our minds and may seem discouraging at times. Through my personal experiences I have found that classroom atmospheres may not always be for everyone. However, that does not mean college life is not for everyone. You can take many alternative routes. You can take advantage of telecourses, online courses, accelerated courses and many other options that may be more suitable. My professors have been great. They come in earlier to help and return e-mails and/or phone calls promptly. You also expect to be able to accomplish your work quickly and with minimal stress, leaving more time to work and spend with your family. You expect to be able to do what you did in high school and still pass. However college, by far, is nowhere as easy as most anticipate. You have to study, unlike high school, where you could float on by with As by seldomly attending class. College is harder than high school and thereforeShow MoreRelatedReturning to College as an Adult Essay1008 Words   |  5 Pagesmany years—returning to school to earn a degree. Returning to school has always been achievable; however, as each year of my life sped by and I got older, I always came up with more and more excuses as to why I should not return to school. One day I received a course catalog in the mail showing online classes at the college. I decide that an online class would be the first step to my future. I am so grateful for the first day of that class. All the excuses and delays regardi ng returning to schoolRead MoreAdults Return to the Classroom1565 Words   |  7 PagesAdults return to the classroom The growing trend of older adults going back to school has doubled over the last ten years according to Career Builders.com and online employment service I have used in the past. With increasing technology changing the job market to skilled labor and the current economic crises causing loss of employment, lay offs and business closings, more and more adults are faced with finding themselves back in the classroom. As I join the many other adult students overRead MoreThe Changing Transition Of Adulthood By Goldscheider Goldsheider And Echoboomerang By Pamela Paul1617 Words   |  7 Pagescohorts which are groupings of generational time periods in history. They agree that the main pathway, children choose in seeking to become an adult out of their parents’ house, is college. The reasons why young adult children may return home to live is to finish paying off college loans and fees that were accumulated while attending school. Both accuse colleges and universities of being raising the cost of intuition or practicing deceptive measures in order to charge student more money. For example;Read MoreLifespan Development1327 Words   |  5 Pagesthat that the majority of college students are white and come from the middle class. However, there is an increase in the number of minority students. The ages of college students may vary widely as well, since more than one third of them are over the age of 25 (Hussar Bailey, 2009). The number of older students reflects a significant change in the college population. Many more students who graduate high school are waiting to attend college instead of attending college directly after high schoolRead MoreGraduation Speech : Becoming A College1181 Words   |  5 Pagesof career colleges, vocational schools that now off er bachelor s degree programs targeted toward working adults like myself. People frequently enroll in career colleges to acquire new skills or enhance their knowledge. Career colleges offer vocational training programs, such as nursing, beauty, auto repair, electronics, and engineering. Through my research I found that increasing numbers of working professionals are enrolling in school to learn the skills necessary to earn a college degree or takeRead MoreLiterature Review793 Words   |  4 Pagesinflux of adult learners returning to college to obtain new or improve their skill set, to obtain a degree to earn more money, and to prepare for a new job altogether as the jobs began to close. The closing of jobs forced workers to seek alternatives way to obtain new jobs, such as returning to school; thus, this area began in the early 2000s with the scarce amount of high paying jobs being available today. Retention is a specific area of concern for many institutions, since the adult po pulationRead MoreAfrican American Nontraditional Students Case Study966 Words   |  4 Pagesnumbers of nontraditional students returning to colleges; the enrollment of students ages 25 and older rose by 13 percent between 1997 and 2007. NCES (2009) reported that from 2006 to 2017, there will be a continual increase in enrollment to nearly 20 percent for this age group (Bonner et al., 2015; Kenner Weinerman, 2011; Ross-Gordon, 2011). According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) there are 162.3 million people in the United States and the Council for Adult and Experiential Learning claimsRead MoreStatistical Differences in Anxiety Essay1320 Words   |  6 Pagesscore (Funk, 2009). These results are difficult to believe given Funks previous research and mention about the majority of adults returning to having such high level of math anxiety upon returning to higher education (Funk, 2009). However, the reason for the scores results from how the results were contrived. The me an is an average of the five common anxieties found in the adult learner (Russel, 2012). The results from the questionnaire are added then divided by the number of students that respondedRead MoreAdult Learning Theory Paper (Alt)1229 Words   |  5 PagesAdult Learning Theory Paper Summary This paper is about adult learning theories. The learning theory andragogy was discussed in detail. Also, the author talked about how people structure their own learning theories. What typical views and reports for adult learning were conversed there were also views and discussions from the view of adult learner. Article stated the pressure and concerns of students who go back to school as an adult years later in comparison to going straight out of high schoolRead MoreShould College Be A Social Worker?967 Words   |  4 Pages Clark Gable stated â€Å"You won’t be doing any worse with an education; you might do a lot better.† Other than ensuring a higher salary, why do people go to college? They go to college to prepare themselves for the learning skills needed to succeed today and tomorrow in this changing world. According to The National Center for Education of Statistics, enrollment in a degree- granting institution has increased by 15 percent, between 2002 and 2012; enrollment increased 24 percent from 16.6 million to

Increasing Impact of E-Marketing Organizational Consumers

Question: Discuss about the Increasing Impact of E-Marketing for Organizational Consumers. Answer: Introduction: With the increasing mass reach of internet and its impact on consumers, every organization is seeking e-marketing as a tool for their advertisement and marketing purpose. We get encountered with e-marketing of almost every product and services available in the market. Reading Boone and Kurtz, (2013), the idea has been cleared that there is a great opportunity of getting fruitful result and the higher chances of targeting the right consumers by the means of proper e-marketing. The aim of the report is to understand the implication of e-marketing on the prospected consumers and to evaluate the impact of online marketing in the recent time. There has been increasing numbers of issues related to the e-marketing that many big and small companies are facing. As commented by Turban, Strauss and Lai, (2015), there has been a lot of misinformation that is communicated to the prospected consumers by the means of e-marketing. In order to make a clear approach of the process of e-marketing, the marketing strategy of American Express, a financial company will be used as a case study for the report. E-marketing of American Express: As one of the leading and established card providers, the financial company has always created innovative marketing campaigns to drive its business. AMEX has understood the importance of e-marketing and has made considerable approaches target the specific group of customers. The company is highly active in e-marketing and carries out all kind of online marketing that includes sending personal mail or text messages, online marketing using the various social networking sites like Facebook and Twitter (Rollins, Nickell Ennis, 2014). In fact, the company knows the exact way to target the prospected consumers and always flow with the current issues that remains in the limelight. One of the most relevant marketing strategies undertaken by the company is the online conversation. The company believes in the fact that far from being all talk and no game, the marketing policy of the company has always been leveraged and the company has tried to involve the consumers in the marketing activitie s. The company has launched an Open Forum website where the prospected customers can share their business knowledge and skills (Rollins, Nickell Ennis, 2014). This approach of the company has created a positive impact on the business and marketing of this International brand. American Express has been utilizing the concept of e-marketing not only for the advertisement purpose but to get proper feedback from the clients as well. In the view point of Alshurideh, Shaltoni and Hijawi, (2014), the online marketing strategy undertaken by AMEX has helped it to gather the target group of people. With the help of online questionnaire survey, the company has been successful to get proper response from the clients. With this approach the company has been successful in gathering more consumers. Relevant issues of the e-marketing: E-marketing has been gaining much importance in the recent time. The mass approach of the same marketing process has created a number of legal and ethical issues as well. Some of the issues can be discussed here: Privacy and data collection: It might seem that the data collection method by the mean of e-marketing is very simple but it is far complex than it seems. The privacy policies notify people about the sharing of their information to others (Kloss Sallot, 2015). The other online stores can get benefitted from the information collected from the consumers. It cannot be denied that AMEX has a strict legal control over the privacy of the information that the consumers share at their website. However, the presence of internet cookies and other issues sometimes hinders the privacy of customers. Security and cloud storage: Although the companies claim that they shall protect the data and will have potential security regarding the information, there always remain potential threats regarding the issue of the customers information (Ng, 2013). This could be one of the major issues that many participants might find reluctant to input their information in spite of having a certain level of willingness. Issues related to intellectual properties: Another legal issue that the companies face with respect to the information is the intellectual property like trademarks and copyright (Ng, 2013). Use of original marketing language in the website of a particular company creates a negative impact on the marketing approach made the companies to target the consumers. Advertising: The websites of the organizations also mislead people by false advertisements and other misleading marketing messages that unfairly affect the consumers behavior and decision making ability. It does not fall on the responsibility or look out of the companys website to keep a watch on other companies that might pop up with their advertisements (Kloss Sallot, 2015). However, using the internet for unfair means is not something that cannot be done. On the other hand, such instances are quiet evident at a regular basis at majority of e-marketing websites. Performance of the company: AMEX has always established an image of loyalty among its customers and the marketing carried on by the Company is also focused to target the consumers of the company. In order to increase its e-marketing, the company has even hired the Federated Media for bloggers. It has been found that the OPEN FORUM concept of the company was rather to make relationship with the consumers and take useful feedback from them rather than using the platform as a marketing tool (Rollins, Nickell Ennis, 2014). The Company has mainly targeted the businessmen as they are the main consumers of the company because they are credit the main credit card keepers. AMEX has rightly established itself as a brand in the market and has forced the consumers to think about the brand as an important industry in the market. The Company has been successful in gaining proper feedback and contact with people in a different way rather than annoying them by visiting them in their inbox. It has to be mentioned in this respect that the marketing practice conducted by the company has never used it for any kind of illegal activities and has always kept focus towards making the service better for the consumers. It has been observed that by this epic means of marketing, AMEX has been able to communicate with the people who could be considered as a prospected consumer (Alshurideh, Shaltoni Hijawi, 2014). Participation of a large number of audiences shows the success of the e-marketing approach made by the company. Recommendations for better marketing: The key to a successful marketing is to understand the precise areas where the marketing can be extremely successful. It is also important to understand the real motive of the marketing. In order to get better result of the marketing, certain recommendations can be made. These are: Defining specific goals to achieve the target: The primary thing is to acknowledge the target people and set the marketing aim to target this specific group of people. It has to be understood that every internet user is not the target consumer and therefore, the e-marketing must focus to target the particular group of people that shall be beneficial for the Company. Inclusion of real facts and figures: In order to make the marketing strategies more convincing, the facts and figures of the companys success or other financial data has to be included. This helps to increase the authenticity of the company towards the target group of people. If people are aware of the current position and the future prospects of the Company, the targeted people could be easily convinced towards their marketing objectives. Committing to the time scale: It is again recommended to be very active in the website and the committed to the timeliness of the activities that shall attract more consumers towards the company. If the marketing is not done keeping the time scale into consideration, it might not be effective upon the target group of people because up-to-date information is vital for a financial company like American Express. Conclusion: With the detail analysis of the e-marketing approach undertaken by the company, it can be said that the company has been successful in its approach towards gathering more customers and at the same time fulfill some of the important objective of the organization. With my personal experience, it can be said that AMEX had been utilizing the e-platform quite well and their marketing approach has resulted in the participation of many consumers. In fact, the company keeps on updating with their recent business plans and other offers that they have to make towards their customers. In addition to this, it has to be mentioned that AMEX has been successful in gaining trust and confidence of its consumers. The transparency in the OPEN FORUM discussion has increased their acceptance among the consumers. However, the issues of e-marketing cannot be neglected and it is expected that privacy and security of the e-marketing functionality shall be kept into consideration in order to improve the perfo rmance and target the prospected consumers rightly. Reference list: Alshurideh, M. T., Shaltoni, A. M., Hijawi, D. A. S. (2014). Marketing Communications Role in Shaping Consumer Awareness of Cause-Related Marketing Campaigns.International Journal of Marketing Studies,6(2), 163. Boone, L. E., Kurtz, D. L. (2013).Contemporary marketing. Cengage learning. Rollins, M., Nickell, D., Ennis, J. (2014). The impact of economic downturns on marketing.Journal of Business Research,67(1), 2727-2731. Kloss, M. V., Sallot, L. M. (2015, March). Corporate Stewardship in Public Relations Here and L and/e Aqui e There: How Top Companies in the US and Brazil Use Their Websites to Build and Maintain Relationships. In18th International Public Relations Research Conference(p. 262). Ng, C. S. P. (2013, June). Factors Affecting the Business Performance of Firms Utilizing Social Media. InPACIS(p. 237). Turban, E., Strauss, J., Lai, L. (2015).Social Commerce: Marketing, Technology and Management. Springer.

Chemical Bonding Essay Example

Chemical Bonding Paper Chemical compounds are formed by the joining of two or more atoms. A stable compound occurs when the total energy of the combination has lower energy than the separated atoms. The bound state implies a net attractive force between the atoms a chemical bond. The two extreme cases of chemical bonds are: Covalent bond: bond in which one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms. Ionic bond: bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attached to another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other.Other types of bonds include metallic bonds and hydrogen bonding. The attractive forces between molecules in a liquid can be characterized as van der Waals bonds. What is an Ionic Bond? An ionic bond is a type of chemical bond formed through an electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonds are formed due to the attraction between an atom that has lost one or more electron (known as a cation) and an atom that has gained one or more electrons (known as an anion). Usually, the cation is a metal atom and the anion is a non-metal atom.It is important to recognize that pure ionic bonding in which one atom steals an electron from another cannot exist: all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. Thus, the term ionic bond is given to a bond in which the ionic character is greater than the covalent character that is, a bond in which a large electronegativity difference exists between the two atoms, causing the bond to be more polar (ionic) than other forms of covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally. Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds.Nevertheless, ionic bonding is considered to be a form of no covalent bonding. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not as a solid. They generally have a high melting point and tend to be soluble in water. Ionic  Bonding   is observed because metals have few electrons in its outer-most orbital. By losing those electrons, these metals can achieve noble-gas configuration and satisfy the octet rule. Similarly, nonmetals that have close to 8 electrons in its valence shell tend to readily accept electrons to achieve its noble gas configuration.In  ionic  bonding, more than 1 electron can be donated or received to satisfy the octet rule. The charge on the anion and cation corresponds to the number of electrons donated or recieved. In  ionic  bonds, the net charge of the compound must be zero. This sodium molecule donates the lone electron in its valence orbital in order to achieve octet configuration. This creates a positively charged cation due to the loss of electron. This Chlorine molecule receives one electron to achieve its octet configuration. This creates a negatively charged anion due to the addition of one electron.The predicted overall energy of the  ionic  bonding process, which inclu des the ionization energy of the metal and electron affinity of the non-metal, is usually positive, indicating that the reaction is endothermic and unfavorable. However,  this reaction is highly favorable because of their electrostatic attraction. At the most ideal inter-atomic distance, attraction between these particles releases enough energy to facilitate the reaction. Most  ionic  compounds tend to dissociate in polar solvents because they are  often polar. This phenomenon is due to the opposite charges on each ions.Examples: In this example, the Sodium  molecule is donating its 1 valence electron to the Chlorine molecule. This creates a Sodium cation and a Chlorine anion. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0. In this example, the Magnesium molecule is donating both of its valence electrons to Chlorine molecules. Each Chlorine molecule can only accept 1 electron before it can achieve  its noble gas configuration; therefore, 2 molecules of Chlorine is requi red to accept the 2 electrons donated by the Magnesium. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0. StructureIonic compounds in the solid state form lattice structures. The two principal factors in determining the form of the lattice are the relative charges of the ions and their relative sizes. Some structures are adopted by a number of compounds; for example, the structure of the rock salt sodium chloride is also adopted by many alkali halides, and binary oxides such as MgO. Bond Strength For a solid crystalline ionic compound the enthalpy change in forming the solid from gaseous ions is termed the lattice energy. The experimental value for the lattice energy can be determined using the Born-Haber cycle.It can also be calculated using the Born-Lande equation as the sum of the electrostatic potential energy, calculated by summing interactions between cations and anions, and a short range repulsive potential energy term. The electrostatic potential can be expressed in terms of the inter-ionic separation and a constant (Madelung constant) that takes account of the geometry of the crystal. The Born-Lande equation gives a reasonable fit to the lattice energy of e. g. sodium chloride where the calculated value is ? 756 kJ/mol which compares to ? 87 kJ/mol using the Born-Haber cycle. Polarization Effects Ions in crystal lattices of purely ionic compounds are spherical; however, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion, an effect summarised in Fajans rules. This polarization of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two nuclei, i. e. , to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually only important when positive ions with charges of 3+ (e. . , Al3+) are involved. However, 2+ ions (Be2+) or even 1+ (Li+) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small (e. g. , LiI is ionic but has some covalent bonding pre sent). Note that this is not the ionic polarization effect which refers to displacement of ions in the lattice due to the application of an electric field. Comparison with covalent bonds In an ionic bond, the atoms are bound by attraction of opposite ions, whereas, in a covalent bond, atoms are bound by sharing electrons to attain stable electron configurations.In covalent bonding, the molecular geometry around each atom is determined by Valence shell electron pair repulsion VSEPR rules, whereas, in ionic materials, the geometry follows maximum packing rules. Purely ionic bonds cannot exist, as the proximity of the entities involved in the bond allows some degree of sharing electron density between them. Therefore, all ionic bonds have some covalent character. Thus, an ionic bond is considered a bond where the ionic character is greater than the covalent character. The larger the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms involved in the bond, the more ionic (polar) the b ond is.Bonds with partially ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds. For example, Na–Cl and Mg–O bonds have a few percent covalency, while Si–O bonds are usually ~50% ionic and ~50% covalent. Electrical Conductivity Ionic compounds, if molten or dissolved, can conduct electricity because the ions in these conditions are free to move and carry electrons between the anode and the cathode. In the solid form, however, they cannot conduct because the electrons are held together too tightly for them to move. However, some ionic compounds can conduct electricity when solid.This is due to migration of the ions themselves under the influence of an electric field. These compounds are known as fast ion conductors. What is a Covalent Bond? Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of bonding occurs between two of the same element or elements close to each other in the periodic table. This bonding occurs primarily be tween non-metals; however, it can also be observed between non-metals and metals as well. When molecules have similar electronegativity, same affinity for electrons, covalent bonds are most likely to occur.Since both atoms have the same affinity for electrons and neither is willing to donate them, they share electrons in order to achieve octet configuration and become more stable. In addition, the ionization energy of the atom is too large and the electron affinity of the atom is too small for  ionic bonding to occur. For example: Carbon doesn’t form  ionic  bonds since it has 4 valence electrons, half of an octet. In order to form  ionic bonds, Carbon molecules must either gain or lose 4 electrons. This is highly unfavourable; therefore, Carbon molecules share their 4 valence electrons through single, double, and triple onds so that each atom can achieve noble gas configurations. Covalent bonds can include interactions of the sigma and pi orbitals; therefore covalent bonds lead to formation of single, double, triple, and quadruple bonds. Example: In this example, a Phosphorous molecule is sharing its 3 unpaired electrons with 3 Chlorine atoms. In the end product, all four of these molecules have 8 valence electrons  and satisfy the octet rule. A covalent bond is the chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.The stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent bonding. [1] For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic configuration. Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interactions, including ? -bonding, ? -bonding, metal-to-metal bonding, agnostic interactions, and three-centre two-electron bonds. [2][3] The term covalent bond dates from 1939. [4] The prefix co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc. thus a co-valent bond, in essence, means that the atoms share valence, such as is discussed in valence bond theory. In the molecule H2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding. [5] Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativity’s. Thus, covalent bonding does not necessarily require the two atoms be of the same elements, only that they be of comparable electronegativity. Covalent bonding which entails sharing of electrons over more than two atoms is said to be delocalized. Physical properties of covalent compounds (polar and non-polar) Physical properties| Covalent compounds|States (at room temperature)| Solid, liquid, gas| Electrical conductivity| Usually none| Boiling point and Melting point| Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds| Solubility in water| Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds| Thermal conductivity| Usually low| Subdivision of covalent bonds There are three types of covalent substances: individual molecules, molecular st ructures, and macromolecular structures. Individual molecules have strong bonds that hold the atoms together, but there are negligible forces of attraction between molecules.Such covalent substances are gases. For example, HCl, SO2, CO2, and CH4. In molecular structures, there are weak forces of attraction. Such covalent substances are low-boiling-temperature liquids (such as ethanol), and low-melting-temperature solids (such as iodine and solid CO2). Macromolecular structures have large numbers of atoms linked in chains or sheets (such as graphite), or in 3-dimensional structures (such as diamond and quartz). These substances have high melting and boiling points, are frequently brittle, and tend to have high electrical resistivity.Elements that have high electronegativity, and the ability to form three or four electron pair bonds, often form such large macromolecular structures. Only when two atoms of the same element form a covalent bond are the shared electrons actually shared eq ually between the atoms. When atoms of different elements share electrons through covalent bonding, the electron will be drawn more toward the atom with the higher electronegativity resulting in a polar covalent bond. When compared to ionic compounds, covalent compounds usually have a lower melting and boiling point, and have less of a tendency to dissolve in water.Covalent compounds can be in a gas, liquid, or solid state and do not conduct electricity or heat well. The types of covalent bonds can be distinguished by looking at the Lewis dot structure of the molecule. For each molecule, there are different names for pairs of electrons, depending if it is shared or not. A pair of electrons that is shared between two atoms is called a bond pair. A pair of electrons that is not shared between two atoms is called a lone pair. Octet Rule The Octet Rule requires all atoms in a molecule to have 8 valence electronseither by sharing, losing or gaining electronsto become stable.For Covalent bonds, atoms tend to share their electrons with each other to satisfy the Octet Rule. It requires 8 electrons because that is the amount of electrons needed to fill a s- and p- orbital (electron configuration); also known as a noble gas configuration. Each atom wants to become as stable as the noble gases that have their outer valence shell filled because noble gases have a charge of 0. Although it is important to remember the magic number, 8, note that there are many Octet rule exceptions. Example: The bonding in  carbon dioxide  (CO2): all atoms are surrounded by 8 electrons, fulfilling the  octet rule.Single Bond A single bond is when two electronsone pair of electronsare shared between two atoms. It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms. Although this form of bond is weaker and has a smaller density than a double bond and a triple bond, it is the most stable because it has a lower level of reactivity meaning less vulnerability in losing electrons to atoms that want to steal electrons. Double Bond A Double bond is when two atoms share two pairs of electrons with each other. It is depicted by two horizontal lines between two atoms in a molecule.This type of bond is much stronger than a single bond, but less stable; this is due to its greater amount of reactivity compared to a single bond. Triple Bond A Triple bond is when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a molecule. It is the least stable out of the three general types of covalent bonds. It is very vulnerable to electron thieves! Polar covalent bond A Polar Covalent Bond is created when the shared electrons between atoms are not equally shared. This occurs when one atom has a higher electronegativity than the atom it is sharing with.The atom with the higher electronegativity will have a stronger pull for electrons (Similar to a Tug-O-War game, whoever is stronger usually wins). As a result, the shared electrons will be closer to the atom with the higher electronegat ivity, making it unequally shared. A polar covalent bond will result in the molecule having a slightly positive side (the side containing the atom with a lower electronegativity) and a slightly negative side (containing the atom with the higher electronegativity) because the shared electrons will be displaced toward the atom with the higher electronegativity.As a result of polar covalent bonds, the covalent compound that forms will have an electrostatic potential. This potential will make the resulting molecule slightly polar, allowing it to form weak bonds with other polar molecules. One example of molecules forming weak bonds with each other as a result of an unbalanced electrostatic potential is hydrogen bonding, where a hydrogen atom will interact with an electronegative hydrogen, fluorine, or oxygen atom from another molecule or chemical group.Non polar covalent bond A Nonpolar Covalent Bond is created when atoms share their electrons equally. This usually occurs when two atoms have similar or the same electron affinity. The closer the values of their electron affinity, the stronger the attraction. This occurs in gas molecules; also known as diatomic elements. Nonpolar covalent bonds have a similar concept as polar covalent bonds; the atom with the higher electronegativity will draw away the electron from the weaker one.Since this statement is trueif we apply this to our diatomic moleculesall the atoms will have the same electronegativity since they are the same kind of element; thus, the electronegativity will cancel each other out and will have a charge of 0(A. K. A. Nonpolar covalent bond). Bonding in Organic Chemistry Ionic and Covalent bonds are the two extremes of bonding. Polar covalent is the intermediate type of bonding between the two extremes. Some ionic bonds contain covalent characteristics and some covalent bonds are partially ionic. For example, most Carbon-based compounds are covalently bonded but can also be partially ionic.Polarity is a measure of the separation of charge in a compound. A compounds polarity is dependent on the symmetry of the compound as well as differences in electronegativity between atoms. Polarity occurs when the electron pushing elements, left side of the periodic table, exchanges electrons with the electron pulling elements, right side of the period table. This creates a spectrum of polarity, with ionic(polar) at one extreme, covalent(nonpolar) at another, and polar covalent in the middle. Both of these bonds are important in Organic Chemistry.Ionic bonds are important because they allow the synthesis of specific organic compounds. Scientists can manipulate ionic properties and these interactions in order to form products they desire. Covalent bonds are especially important since most carbon molecules interact primarily through covalent bonding. Covalent bonding allows molecules to share electrons with other molecules, creating long chains of compounds and allowing more complexity in life. AS SIGNMENT IN CHEM LEC 1 * Ionic bond * Covalent bond Submitted to: Dr. Juliet Salgados Submitted by: Russhel Aira Dolauta